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On January 13, 1903, 101 Koreans arrived in Hawaii, and by the end of that year, a total of 1,133 had come to Hawaii. The scale of immigration continued to increase, with 3,434 arriving in 1904 and 2,659 in 1905, bringing the total to 7,226. These immigrants arrived in Hawaii on 65 ships over 15 voyages, consisting of 6,048 men, 637 women, and 541 children. The shortage of women reflected the social anxieties of the time. However, 983 individuals could not endure the harsh immigrant life and returned to Korea.

After their contracts ended, the Koreans residing in Hawaii migrated to the mainland United States, with about 1,300 moving to the western regions by 1907. They sought jobs in railroad construction, fishing, and mining. By 1910, the number of Koreans settled in places like San Francisco and Los Angeles reached approximately 2,000 to 2,200.

However, Japan stripped Korea of its diplomatic rights in November 1905, effectively blocking Korean immigration to the Americas.

Additionally, the U.S. government announced an immigration ban in April 1905, prohibiting immigration from Hawaii, Canada, and South America. In March 1907, President Roosevelt submitted a bill to Congress that blocked immigration from Japan and Korea to the mainland, resulting in Koreans needing to possess passports issued by the Japanese Foreign Ministry to enter the U.S. starting in November 1907.

Despite these restrictions, 222 Koreans immigrated between 1906 and 1910, consisting of 182 men and 40 women. By 1911, the number of immigrants had dropped to just 8. During the five years of halted immigration, 946 men, 19 women returned to Korea, and 45 died, while 4,187 remained in Hawaii. Additionally, 107 Korean children were born during this period.

From 1910 to 1919, as Japanese oppression intensified, about 1,000 Koreans escaped Korea without passports and migrated to the U.S. They were allowed entry through the guarantee of the Korean National Association and were referred to as “refugee students” or “new students.” Between 1910 and 1924, over 900 women immigrated to Hawaii and the mainland, including picture brides, those invited by their husbands, students, and exiles.

By 1920, it was estimated that about 1,000 Koreans had returned to Korea. Starting in 1921, as Japan’s governance of Korea shifted from military to civilian rule, Koreans were able to study in the U.S. using Japanese passports. By 1940, 289 students had entered the U.S. on Japanese passports, with 15% obtaining doctoral degrees.

In 1924, the Korean population in the Americas reached 7,400, with 6,725 men and 675 women, still representing only 10% of the total. From 1924 to 1945, immigration of Asians, excluding students, was banned, and during World War II, only two ministers and two students entered the U.S. between 1940 and 1941.

From 1950 to 1964, 6,423 women married to U.S. military personnel, 5,348 adopted orphans, and other professionals such as students, doctors, and scientists obtained permanent residency, totaling 15,049 Koreans.

According to U.S. census data, the number of Koreans increased annually. In 1900, there were 168 Koreans on the mainland, 4,534 in Hawaii by 1910, 1,224 in 1916, and 1,916 in 1930. By 1940, the Korean population reached 8,568, and it was estimated at 10,000 in 1950. Starting in 1965, the Hart-Celler Act allowed 20,000 immigrants annually from Pacific coastal countries, increasing to 30,000 from Korea starting in 1975.

Thus, the history of Korean immigration to the U.S. has steadily grown despite numerous restrictions and challenges, and Koreans have now established themselves as an important part of American society.

Changes in U.S. Immigration Policy and Immigration History by Era

Early Immigration (1903-1905): Labor Immigration to Hawaii

• Background (U.S. Immigration Law): The implementation of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882 blocked the influx of Chinese laborers, leading sugar plantation owners in Hawaii, which was annexed by the U.S. in 1898, to seek new cheap labor. Although Japanese laborers were already present, rising wages necessitated finding more labor.
• Background (Korean Situation): In 1901, Korea faced severe drought and famine, leading to economic hardship. King Gojong implemented relief policies, but they were insufficient. At this time, U.S. consul Allen proposed Korean immigration to Hawaii.
• Progress: In 1902, an immigration treaty was signed between Allen and the Korean Empire, and the government established the Su-min-won (隨民院) to oversee immigration affairs.
• Result: From 1903 to 1905, a total of 7,226 Koreans immigrated to Hawaii via 65 ships, primarily as contract laborers for farms, consisting of 6,048 men, 637 women, and 541 children.

Period of Immigration Restrictions and Suspension (1905-1924)

• Background (U.S. Immigration Law/Policy): Restrictions on Asian immigration were tightened. In 1907, President Roosevelt passed a law prohibiting Japanese and Korean immigration to the mainland U.S. from Hawaii.
• Background (Korean Situation): Through the Eulsa Treaty in 1905, the Korean Empire was stripped of its diplomatic rights, and Japan prohibited Korean immigration to the U.S. The Su-min-won, which oversaw immigration, was closed in October 1903, and the immigration development company ceased operations in April 1905.
• Progress: Although official immigration was halted, some Koreans entered the U.S. through various means. Approximately 1,300 moved to the mainland before 1907 after their contracts in Hawaii ended, and by 1910, 2,000 to 2,200 had settled in the western regions. Koreans with Japanese passports were allowed entry starting in November 1907, and 222 entered between 1906 and 1910. Additionally, around 1,000 “new students” (refugee students) entered without passports from 1910 to 1919 to escape Japanese oppression. Between 1910 and 1924, over 900 Koreans, including picture brides, family invitees, students, and exiles, immigrated to Hawaii and the mainland.

Complete Ban on Asian Immigration (1924-1952)

• Background (U.S. Immigration Law): In 1924, the Johnson-Reed Act completely banned immigration of Asians, excluding students.
• Progress: During this period, Korean immigration to the U.S. became nearly impossible. Entry for students with Japanese passports was permitted starting in 1921, with 289 entering by 1940. These students were monitored by the Japanese colonial government and were required to return home after completing their studies. During World War II, only two students and two ministers entered the U.S. between 1940 and 1941. In 1940, the Alien Registration Act was implemented, leading to strict control over entrants.

Limited Allowance and Transitional Period (1950s – 1964)

• Background (Changes in U.S. Policy): Following World War II and the Korean War, limited entry for Koreans began to be allowed.
• Progress: During this period, the entry of Koreans in specific categories increased. 6,423 women married to U.S. military personnel and 5,348 adopted war orphans entered, along with professionals such as students, doctors, and scientists. From 1950 to 1964, a total of 15,049 immigrants came, primarily from these three groups.

Era of Large-Scale Immigration (Post-1965)

• Background (U.S. Immigration Law): In 1965, the Hart-Celler Act abolished the national origins quota system and introduced a new system favoring family reunification and skilled professionals, significantly opening the door for Asian immigration.
• Progress: Koreans were allocated a quota of 20,000 annually (later increased to 30,000), leading to large-scale immigration through family reunification and employment. Between 1959 and 1969, 33,518 settled in the U.S., and the number of immigrants increased sharply thereafter.

Conclusion: Korean immigration to the U.S. began with the demand for labor on Hawaiian sugar plantations but faced significant restrictions due to exclusionary immigration laws (such as the Chinese Exclusion Act, the ban on Japanese/Korean immigration to the mainland, and the ban on Asian immigration). After World War II, some immigration related to U.S. military personnel was permitted, and the 1965 immigration law reform opened the floodgates for large-scale immigration. Changes in U.S. immigration laws have been crucial in determining the scale, nature, and pathways of Korean immigration.