People, Hawaii, San Francisco
The early immigrants who were lonely liked to gather together. Korean immigrants in Hawaii created “Donghoe” at the farm level and appointed a “Dongjang” as the leader. The Dongjang acted as a representative for Koreans, resolving disputes among them and punishing those who broke the rules. However, this was more of a workplace organization aimed at facilitating farm work and reducing unjust damages rather than having a common purpose.
In contrast, the “Shinminhoe,” established on August 7, 1903, was the first Korean organization in the United States with the purpose of patriotism and anti-Japanese activities.
When early Korean immigrants in Hawaii faced unfair treatment from farm owners and even imprisonment, they felt helpless without the support of their home country. They requested the dispatch of a consulate from Korea, even offering to cover the expenses. When this request was ultimately denied, they felt the need to operate an organization on their own. The thought of surviving by gathering together led to the creation of 28 small organizations between 1906 and 1907 with the purposes of friendship and mutual aid.
Korean organizations shared an anti-Japanese spirit but were separate from each other. Starting with the “Chinmokhoei” in San Francisco in 1903, there were about 20 Korean organizations on the mainland by 1907. The patriotic and anti-Japanese spirit spread throughout the Korean community after the martyrdom of Yi Jun at the Hague Peace Conference on July 16, 1907, leading even general organizations to focus on independence movements. The assassination of Stevens by Chang In-hwan in 1908 prompted the unification of Hawaiian and mainland organizations under the name “Gongniphoe” in 1909. In 1910, the “Daedongbogukhoe” also joined “Gongniphoe,” resulting in the formation of the “Korean National Association” (Daehanin Gukminhoe) as a comprehensive Korean organization in the United States. The “Korean National Association” became the central institution for protecting the rights of Korean Americans and promoting the independence movement.
Background of Early Korean Organizations
First, early immigrants went through cultural adjustments, shedding traditional Korean attire for Western clothing provided during their voyage, and breaking Confucian norms like separating men and women. Educated Koreans who emigrated became leaders, and under their guidance, the immigrant community easily formed Korean organizations.
Second, economic growth played a significant role. The wages at that time were reported to be 69 cents per hour, equivalent to about 1 won and 40 jeon in Korean currency, considering the exchange rate of 2:1. This was about seven times higher than the wages in Korea, providing a relatively substantial income. Some workers reported saving $50-60 after working for 5-6 months. This economic stability encouraged interest in forming organizations with noble causes and friendship purposes.
Third, the US government allowed Korean immigrants to engage in political and diplomatic activities freely for their homeland’s independence. The primary goals of the organizations formed simultaneously with immigration were the welfare of Koreans and the independence of Korea. Despite internal divisions, the frequent anti-Japanese incidents fueled the desire for Korean independence, leading to the unification and alliance of these organizations.
Chinmokhoei in San Francisco
Founded on September 23, 1903, under the guidance of Ahn Chang-ho, with founding members including Park Seon-gyeom, Lee Dae-wee, Kim Seong-mu, Park Young-soon, Jang Kyung, Kim Chan-il, Kim Byeong-mo, Kim Dong-sam, Hong Kyung-sul, and Park Seung-ji. The headquarters were set up in the basement of a building owned by a Chinese person on Washington Street. Ahn Chang-ho was the first president. At that time, there were about 25 Koreans in San Francisco, mostly ginseng merchants or students, living in difficult conditions.
Chinmokhoei aimed to help the lonely and poor support each other and stabilize their lives. The ginseng merchants often had disputes over sales territories. To reduce conflicts, the organization set fixed prices for ginseng and rotated sales territories monthly. They also took charge of labor mediation for Korean workers, ensuring minimum wages and promoting Korean living standards and friendship. By 1904, the organization had grown to 49 members, including newly arrived immigrants from Hawaii, and evolved into the “Gongnip Association” (Gongniphoe) with a primary focus on the anti-Japanese movement.
Gongnip Association
Ahn Chang-ho, along with Lee Kang and Im Joon-ki, established an independent labor camp for Korean workers near Riverside, Los Angeles, by borrowing $1,500 from an American landlord. They set up two telephones and united 18 Korean workers who paid off the debt in one month. On April 5, 1905, they founded the “Gongnip Association,” the first political organization.
The number of Korean workers grew to 35, working diligently during the day and studying the Bible and English at night under the guidance of invited American pastors. After the success of the Gongnip Association in Riverside, members requested Ahn Chang-ho to stop working and focus on larger projects and national matters, offering to support him financially. He moved to San Francisco and quickly expanded the association to over 600 members within two years.
The name “Gongnip” means “to stand together in unity.” Its goal was to unite globally and support each other while promoting patriotism and anti-Japanese activities. The organization adopted a system of checks and balances with legislative and executive branches, operating under democratic principles and uniting overseas Koreans with a nationalist ideology to protect their interests and lead the anti-Japanese movement, gaining extensive support both domestically and internationally. They purchased a building at 938 Pacific Avenue in San Francisco for $3,500 and established a headquarters by November 14, 1905. The “Gongnip Shinbo” newspaper was first published on November 20, 1905. The organization and its significance were detailed in the “Gongnip Shinbo,” stating, “The Gongnip Association’s system imitates the constitution; the Legislative Assembly is the legislative body, and the General Assembly is the executive body. If there is any mistake in the administration of the association, the legislators should impeach it, and if the legislators make mistakes, the general members should criticize them, protecting each other and achieving their grand purpose.”
As the organization grew, local chapters were established in six locations: Los Angeles, Redlands, Riverside, Oakland, Boyd, and Rock Springs. By June 1907, they had 654 members across six cities, with 291 in San Francisco, 127 in Los Angeles, 52 in Redlands, 150 in Riverside, and 34 in Rock Springs, Wyoming. After the 1906 San Francisco earthquake destroyed the headquarters, a temporary office was set up at 416 10th Street in Oakland for a year.
In 1907, members Kim Seong-mu, Im Chi-seong, and Lee Gyo-dam announced the “National Debt Redemption Fundraiser” to collect donations amounting to 1.3 million won for domestic support. They also raised funds to prevent the closure of the “Imperial Newspaper” and the “Hwangseong Newspaper” due to financial difficulties. In May 1907, the association rented a temporary office at 1944 Buchanan Street in San Francisco, which served as the General Assembly office and the “Gongnip Shinbo” office. They moved to a new location at 392 Austin Street in August of that year.
On October 9, 1907, the Sacramento local chapter was established with President Kim Gyeong-ham and Vice President Shin Soon-man, setting up an office at 618 L Street. The “Gongnip Shinbo” reported on October 11, 1907, that the Sacramento chapter had set up a police station and established a public meeting hall in a three-story brick building. They held an opening ceremony on October 19, with the General Assembly sending national and association flags and the San Francisco chapter sending a silk scroll with congratulatory messages.
Local chapters were also organized in Salt Lake City in 1907 and Hanford in 1908. In January 1908, Kim Seong-mu and Lee Kang were sent to Siberia to establish the Far East branch in Sucheng and Chita, and the Manchuria branch in Vladivostok. In June 1908, they moved to a new building on Sacramento Street, and in August, they purchased a house on Ferry Street to complete the headquarters. By November 1908, branches were established as far as Haishenwai in the Russian Far East. In January 1909, the association had over 800 members across nine branches. When Korean organizations in the United States unified in 1909, the Gongnip Association merged into the National Association. The first president was Ahn Chang-ho, followed by Song Seok-jun and Jeong Jae-gwan.
The “Shinhan Minbo” newspaper of August 9, 1907, listed some donors and their contributions to the Gongnip Association, including Lim Tae-ho ($30), Lee Jae-soo ($25), Seo Sang-gyeong ($21), Choi Joo-hee, Hong Jae-seong, Kim Jong-rim, and Park Seong-sam ($10 each), among others.
Daedong Education Association
Internal conflicts arose during the development of the Gongnip Association. Jang Kyung, one of the founders of the “Chinmokhoei,” disagreed with Ahn Chang-ho and organized the “Daedong Education Association” on December 9, 1905, in Pasadena, California, with founding members including Kim Mi-ri-sa and Kim Woo-je. Kim Woo-je was the president, and Jang Kyung was the general secretary.
The main purpose of the Education Association was to promote education. While it shared the goals of patriotism and mutual aid, it differed significantly from the Gongnip Association, which included broad ideals like universal equality and democracy. On March 2, 1907, the “Daedong Education Association” was reorganized into the “Daedongboguk Association” (Daedongbogukhoe). By then, it had over 500 members, with thousands of won in membership fees collected, indicating significant growth.
Daedongboguk Association
The Daedongboguk Association, organized in San Francisco on March 2, 1907, aimed to unite all Koreans to preserve the nation’s sovereignty, advocating two major principles and three main objectives. The two principles were “to promote world peace by awakening public opinion” and “to unite Koreans to preserve the peace and stability of Korea.” The three main objectives were expanding education for the people, promoting industries, and building self-governance.
Founding members included Jang Kyung, Kim Woo-je, Lee Byung-ho, Yoo Hong-jo, Kim Mi-ri-sa, Yoon Eung-ho, Moon Yang-mok, Choi Yoon-baek, Jang In-hwan, Byun Chang-su, Kim Chun-hwa, Kim Hong-gyun, Song Sa-won, Yang Joo-eun, Baek Il-gyu, Lee Myun-sik, Bang Sa-gyeom, Jo Seong-hak, Lee Hak-yeon, Park Do-seon, Seo Taek-won, Park Chang-woon, Kim Pil-kwon, Lee Seong-chil, and Kim Chan-il. Jang Kyung was the general secretary, and the first central president was Lee Byung-ho, followed by Baek Il-gyu and Moon Yang-mok.
The Daedongboguk Association established local chapters in five cities: Stockton, Fresno, Carlin, Denver, and Salt Lake City, and even sent representatives to Shanghai, China. They also published the “Daedong Monthly” newspaper.
However, the association did not see much development after Jang Kyung, the central general secretary, left for Shanghai on September 24, 1907, to establish the Far East branch.
On October 3, 1907, the Daedong Education Association set up its central headquarters on Webster Street in San Francisco and began publishing the “Daedong Bulletin” as its official publication, adopting a strong anti-Japanese stance. The association’s ideology and methods of struggle, advocating that “independence cannot be achieved without shedding blood,” gained support from radical Korean Americans. The assassination of Stevens by Jang In-hwan, a member of the Daedongboguk Association, on March 1908, served as a catalyst for the need for unification among various anti-Japanese and general organizations.
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