“Snow piled up like mountains, and the north wind blew like knives as they slept in empty field cabins…”
Railroads
The Union Pacific Railroad construction, which extended through the Rocky Mountains into the Midwest, required a massive workforce, including many Asian laborers. Although they avoided the grueling life of farm work, the railroad jobs left workers exhausted in the summer and frostbitten in the winter.
Much of the railroad construction near Salt Lake City, Utah, was completed by Koreans.
Timeline of Key Events:
- March 1905: The Union Pacific and Southern Pacific Railroads sought 20,000 laborers for transcontinental railroad construction.
- March 1905: A railroad agent opened an office at Hansung Inn, run by Moon Seok-hong in Honolulu, Hawaii, to recruit 5,000 workers.
- December 1906: Jae-Soon Park opened the Gamho Inn at 36 Rich Street in Salt Lake City.
- April 26, 1907: Daily wages for Salt Lake railroad work increased to 1 won 35 jeon–1 won 55 jeon.
- June 21, 1907: Railroad broker Jae-Soo Lee reported that 90 Koreans found the work manageable and the pay favorable.
- July 26, 1907: A Denver newspaper ad from a Korean labor agency promoted railroad jobs as the most lucrative, with daily wages ranging from 1 won 50 jeon to 2 won 50 jeon. Jobs making charcoal and breaking stones paid 2 won 25 jeon, while contract-based charcoal work earned over 3–4 won daily.
- December 27, 1907: About 70–80 Koreans laid off at a Nevada railroad site moved to Sacramento.
- January 15, 1908: New electric railroad construction began in Fresno, offering a three-year project employing 300–500 workers with wages starting at 1 won 40 jeon per day.
- February 5, 1908: Reports highlighted the hardships Korean railroad workers faced:
“Snow piled up like mountains, and the north wind blew like knives as they slept in empty field cabins…” - February 26, 1908: Recruiter Soon-Man Shin gathered 30–40 laborers with monthly pay of 33 won for full attendance.
- October 7, 1908: The Western Pacific Railroad resumed work near Salt Lake City, employing 30–40 Koreans and expressing interest in hiring hundreds more.
- December 9, 1908: Railroad agents Young-Jun Park and Jae-Soo Lee recruited 220 workers for the Western Pacific Railroad, offering daily wages of 1 won 45 jeon.
- February 10, 1909: A call for railroad workers emphasized job availability amid discrimination:
“For Koreans lamenting unemployment due to anti-Asian sentiment, come and join. Over 50 workers are needed for Pacific Coast railroads. Wages: 1 won 60 jeon (40 jeon paid upfront, the rest after four months). Daily work: 10 hours. Location: Ocean Shore Railroad, 16 miles from San Francisco.”
Recruitment was managed by the Korean National Association’s business team, Heo Seung-won and Kim Eung-gyu, at 2928 Sacramento St., San Francisco, CA.
- January 13, 1909: A fire affected 16 Koreans working on railroad construction in Dayton, Nevada.
- February 17, 1909: About 30 Koreans gathered at the Ocean Shore Railroad site.
- April 14, 1909: A contract negotiated by Heo Seung-won and Kim Eung-gyu set wages at 1 won 40 jeon for Ocean Shore Railroad work.
- June 23, 1909: A financial crisis at Ocean Shore Railroad delayed payments. Workers transitioned to Southern Pacific Railroad contracts, relocating to Cass Valley. A university student, Dae-Wei Lee, managed operations during summer break.
- July 14, 1909: Student Hee-Won Jeong balanced study and work on the Salt Lake Railroad.
- September 22, 1909: Despite delayed payments, broker Heo Seung-won secured funds for Korean workers by liquidating company shares and paying wages in full.
- January 31, 1910: A gas explosion at a coal mine in Primero, Colorado, killed over 100 workers, including nine Koreans.
- July 5, 1917: CMS Paul Railroad Company in Grace, Montana, offered daily wages of 2 won 47 jeon for 10-hour shifts.
The resilience of Korean laborers shaped the early railroad industry in the United States despite the severe hardships they faced.
Alaska Fishing Grounds
The Alaskan fishing industry was at its peak with salmon fishing. Koreans living in Northern California ventured to Alaska to work as laborers in salmon canneries. During the five months from June to October, they earned between $160 to $250 per month. The harsh cold took a toll as they washed and cut the caught salmon into pieces with knives, causing their fingers to crack and bleed. The work was so grueling that some workers took their own lives. It is said that in the dormitories for cannery workers, the faded names of Korean laborers remain inscribed on the walls.
- 1907, April 26: Alaska is extremely cold, and many Chinese and Japanese laborers who went fishing there suffered from illnesses or death. Recruiters offered advance payments of $30–$40 to attract workers, but warnings were issued to avoid being deceived into going.
- 1907, November 8: Ten Koreans who had worked in Alaska returned to San Francisco, including Baek Rak-beom, Lee Chun-il, Jeong Gil-hyeon, Yang Geum-seong, Kim Myung-soo, Park Ki-soon, Ha Young-sook, Park Ga-hyeon, and Kim Hyun-jin.
- 1908, April 8: Labor recruitment for Alaska began, led by Kim Gil-yeon and Baek Rak-beom in San Francisco and Moon Won-chil in Oakland. A conflict arose when Moon Won-chil attempted to recruit workers already promised to Kim Gil-yeon. Despite the dispute, over 50 workers departed that day.
- 1908, February 26: Recruitment advertisement: Workers were promised $150 (or $180 for those with experience), for five months of work compared to the usual seven months. It emphasized trustworthy guarantees and timely pay, encouraging laborers to seize the opportunity despite rising anti-Asian sentiment.
- 1908, September 16: Fifty workers who had left in April returned home after five months, with the names of 25 individuals from Kim Gil-yeon’s group publicly listed.
- 1908, September 23: Returning laborers reported hardships, including Yang Taek-yong, who lost his earnings and required hospitalization.
- 1908, November 11: More returnees arrived, including Jeong Wan-sap, Choi Gun-shin, Hyeon Seung-geol, Lim Jong-ho, Moon Young-soo, Moon Won-chil, Jeong Won-seo, and Park Jong-gul.
- 1909, February 17: A man named Son Byung-seo deceived fellow Koreans, stealing advance wages meant for Alaskan workers.
- 1909, September 15: Two more laborers returned from Alaska.
- 1909, September 19: A welcome ceremony for Alaskan returnees was held at the Korean Public Hall in San Francisco.
- 1909, September 29: Lee Man-hwa, unable to endure the harsh conditions, committed suicide by consuming sulfuric acid at the Kenai fishing grounds. Three companions buried him locally.
- 1914, October 1: Three workers returned home after enduring extreme hardships in Alaska.
- 1917, May 24: A fishing boat in Alaska carrying 150 crew members sank, leaving only 29 survivors. Three Korean laborers were among the deceased.
Quick Silver (Mercury) Mines in Central California
Mercury is highly hazardous, and many workers suffered illnesses due to exposure. During wartime, demand surged, requiring more labor. Early Korean workers, without the luxury of prioritizing health, worked in these mines.
- 1907, September 13: The mercury mines experienced a boom.
- 1909, June 2: Approximately 20 Koreans worked at the Idria Quick Silver Mining site, earning trust from their employers. Located in a remote mountain range near Fresno, Koreans faced isolation but were well-regarded by supervisors who provided protection and support amidst tensions with other laborers.
- 1909, May 19: Korean miners contributed funds to the Korean Association.
- 1917, June 7: Wages increased, work hours were reduced from 10 to 8, and workers were allowed to prepare their own meals.
Coal Mines
Early immigrants also worked in coal mines, particularly in Superior, Wyoming. On August 23, 1908, the Shinhan Minbo reported on Korean laborers’ contracts with Rock Springs Coal Mines.
- Wages: Initially $0.80–$0.90 per day for 8 hours of work, raised to $3.10–$3.40.
- Tasks: Washing coal paid $0.21 per ton (later $0.26), while mining coal increased from $0.50 to $0.63 per ton. A skilled worker could earn $4–$5 daily.
- Tragedy: In December 1907, Choi Eui-sung, 28, died in a mine collapse while working in Rock Springs, Wyoming.
- 1909, June: Lee Tae-seok, working at Savery Coal Mines in Wyoming, suffered injuries but was aided by fellow Koreans.
- 1918: Advertisements showed that outdoor coal mining paid $4.40 per day, while underground work paid $5.42. Mining coal paid $0.77 per ton, and hauling coal earned $0.49 per ton.
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