In the early stages, Korean immigrants in the United States were relatively deliberate and voluntary in their migration, coming for exile, escape, or study. They lived with the assumption that they could return home once their temporary stay or exile ended. As a people without a country, yearning for independence, they expressed themselves through literature and theater. Despite enduring discrimination, contempt, and harsh living conditions, they continued to write and perform.
Examining the early immigrant literature and art that thrived under the freedom of expression in the U.S.—unlike in their homeland—is undeniably an important part of immigrant history. Korean immigrant literary works can be divided into two categories based on the language used: Korean and English. This duality makes it difficult to consider Korean immigrant literature as exclusively part of Korean literature.
At the time, the Shinhan Minbo (New Korea Times) was the main platform for literary expression. The Korean National Association, the sole organization representing Korea abroad, published the Shinhan Minbo as the official newspaper of the Korean American community in the U.S. Naturally, most intellectuals in the Korean American community were centered around the newspaper, which also became the focal point for re-evaluations and reflections on movements like the March 1st Independence Movement and the broader fight for independence.
The themes and content of the literature were rooted in ideals such as promoting education and industry, advocating for freedom and equality, enhancing the honor of fellow Koreans, and serving the cause of Korea’s independence and liberation.
For a long time, the works that emerged from this era were little known. Thanks to the efforts of Professor Kyu-Ik Cho of Soongsil University, early immigrant literature gained recognition. Professor Cho referred to the writings published in the Shinhan Minbo as “bloody moans” and described them as works “alive with piercing intensity, preserved on yellowed, crumbling newspaper pages.”
Today, hundreds of poems and dozens of novels and plays from Korean immigrants remain. While some works were written in English and may not fit neatly into the category of Korean literature, Professor Cho emphasized that these English works, with their distinctly Korean themes and characters, should be naturally embraced as part of Korean literature.
Theater, in particular, played a significant role in the cultural and literary lives of Korean American communities before Korea’s liberation. By serving the practical purposes required by the times, it contributed greatly to establishing the identity and emotional solidarity of Korean American communities. Much remains to be researched in this field. This chapter revisits the literary and artistic worlds of early immigrants, unbound by ideological constraints, through Professor Cho’s works, various references, and the Shinhan Minbo.
Immigrant Literature
The contrast between experiences in the Old World and the New World was a source of internal conflict for immigrants, but it also served as a powerful driver for literary expression and as a foundational archetype for immigrant literature. Early Korean-language literature became a significant part of immigrant literature, bridging to English-language immigrant literature.
The shared themes of immigrant literature, particularly in novels, often centered on the struggles and frustrations of protagonists who fled the Old World and attempted to settle in the New World.
Examples include Gary Pak’s A Rice Paper Airplane and Kim Nanyoung’s (the wife of early immigrant pilot Han Jang-ho) Clay Walls.
In A Rice Paper Airplane, the protagonist, Seonghwa Kim, reflects on his turbulent past while conversing with Yonggil, a younger relative, as he faces death. His longing and obsession with returning to Korea and his defiance against Japanese imperial forces lead him to Hawaii. However, he finds himself oppressed once again—this time by American authorities, revealing the persistent and tragic forces of domination. The revolutionary journey of Seonghwa Kim, from Korea to China, Japan, and Hawaii, ends in a tragic human story as he dies without realizing his dream of returning home. Written after Korea’s liberation, the narrator situates the story in February 1928.
Similarly, Kim Nanyoung’s Clay Walls depicts the trials, struggles, and disappointments of Hyesu, a first-generation immigrant. Her journey of raising children and adapting to the New World is portrayed as a preparation for returning to the Old World. However, when she finally achieves her dream of returning, she finds her homeland transformed into a New World, ravaged by Japanese imperialism.
After returning to America (the now-Old World), Hyesu faces even harsher trials. The conclusion presents an ironic reality: Korean immigrants, caught between divided North and South Korea, are unable to return to either side, forcing them to remain in America. Hyesu’s progressive Korean association is labeled a communist organization by the South Korean government, barring her from entering South Korea. Similarly, her ancestral land in Kwaksan falls under North Korea’s communist control, preventing her from returning there.
This narrative highlights the predicaments and historical ironies faced by Korean immigrants, whose return to the Old World or adaptation to the New World was often impossible or fraught with challenges.
Characteristics of Early Immigrant Literature
Early immigrant literature was largely autobiographical in theme, content, and structure. It was the first genre produced by first-generation immigrants and often published as English-language books. Prominent Asian immigrant novelists of the era included Younghill Kang, Richard E. Kim, and Young Ik Kim—all of whom were Korean, as reported by the San Francisco Chronicle on July 19, 1936.
Poetry
During the early days of Korean immigration, most immigrants were farmers and laborers, allowing them to continue the tradition of singing traditional poetry embedded in their culture and lifestyle.
Although intellectuals leading The New Korea (신한민보) drew upon Western poetic forms, they could not entirely break away from the structure of traditional Korean poetry in their creations.
In the mid to late 1920s, a revival of sijo (traditional Korean verse) emerged as a literary movement in Korea, supported by newspapers like Dong-A Ilbo. However, in the Korean American community, such efforts were already in progress much earlier. Beginning in 1918, The New Korea actively promoted nationalistic and enlightenment poetry by calling for submissions of Korean poetry and songs. They sought to rationalize the structures of traditional poetry by adapting Western poetic theories.
One notable form of song that was popular in Korea at the time, changa, was introduced to the Korean American community as a tool to enlighten fellow immigrants. These songs expressed the determination to reclaim national sovereignty and the sorrow of displacement.
In terms of poetic expression, immigrant poets fell into two categories: those who continued to sing traditional genres and those who experimented with new forms and adaptations. Regardless of the form, the themes were consistent—longing for the homeland, anger toward Japanese oppression, and a shared hope for recovery and independence.
Song in Celebration of the Founding of the San Francisco Public Association (1914)
Joyous is this day, the day of our association’s founding!
Our compatriots have united to establish it firmly.
Oh, glorious day, glorious day—
The founding day of the Public Association!
Let us raise our voices in a song of triumph.
Literary Events
- July 30, 1914: A group of Korean poets and literary figures residing in San Francisco held a poetry gathering on Strawberry Hill in Golden Gate Park. Reports described the flowers and birds in the park as finally finding their rightful audience.
- August 6, 1914: A literary contest themed around “Flowers” was held, with 31 submissions. The winning works included:
- First Prize (by a lady in San Francisco):
“Silken smooth and pure,
Without fragrance, who would love
A blossom of spring?” - Second Prize (by Son Geon of Dinuba):
“Springtime’s love, red and white,
Smiling faintly, who has brushed
This tender hue on thee?”
- First Prize (by a lady in San Francisco):
Literary Advertisements and Movements
- In 1918, The New Korea announced a call for changa submissions with specific criteria, such as a limit of three to four stanzas and requiring the use of pure Korean. Submissions were to be sent to the “Korean Song Publishing Office” in Los Angeles.
- On June 17, 1948, Hong Eon, editor-in-chief of The New Korea, prepared for the publication of his anti-Japanese writings and poetry.
Songs by Dosan Ahn Changho
Dosan wrote numerous patriotic songs, including the National Anthem of Korea (Aegukga), The Song of the Nation, and The Heungsadan Song.
- “The Song of the Nation” (거국가):
Written in April 1910 before Ahn went into exile, this song foreshadowed his departure. It was widely sung by Korean communities abroad and even included in The New Korea on November 11, 1915. Despite a ban by the Japanese colonial government, it became a popular anthem among Koreans, symbolizing their longing for independence. - “The Heungsadan Song”:
This song rallied men and women devoted to their nation, urging them to unite under the banner of sincerity and action to restore Korea’s glory.
Patriotic Themes in Poetry and Song
The shared theme across all these works was a deep love for Korea, a firm commitment to independence, and a determination to preserve the cultural spirit of their homeland. Even as they adapted to new environments, Korean immigrants kept alive their poetic traditions, expressing their struggles, dreams, and unwavering patriotism through words and song.
Novel
In the early days, novels, like poetry, primarily reflected reality. Similar to poetry, novels naturally emerged as a useful genre for educating the public, often focusing on themes of patriotism. Unlike Korea, where expression was heavily censored under Japanese rule, Korean writers in the U.S. enjoyed greater freedom of expression and could incorporate purpose-driven themes into their works.
The novels by first-generation Korean-Americans primarily revolved around romantic patriotism before the March 1st Movement. After the movement, the themes shifted to enlightenment, human psychology, and real-world issues.
Advertisements for books imported from Korea frequently appeared in the Sinhan Minbo. North American bookstores like Bukmi Soyeonseohoe and Taebaek Bookstore imported these works and advertised them.
Novels Before the March 1st Movement:
Notable works include:
- The Patriot’s Success: Showcasing patriotism and methods through a pure war.
- The Fiery Mandarin Ducks: Highlighting patriotism through themes of war and love.
- Autumn of Namgang: Depicting the pain of separation and encounters between men and women, intertwined with colonial realities.
- Inescapable: Following a tense story of a woman forced to choose between her husband and father, both on the verge of death in Japanese captivity.
- Okranhyang: Combining tales of romance and espionage with tightly woven plots and a strong sense of completeness.
Before liberation, approximately 30 novels were published in Sinhan Minbo, with nearly 20 works created before the March 1st Movement. There were no novels published between the movement and late 1920. Original fiction began appearing in 1921 but became almost nonexistent after 1941, up until liberation. Post-March 1st Movement novels explored themes of enlightenment, affection, and the pursuit of psychological and social realism. Early works aimed to restore the pride lost under Japanese colonization, while post-movement works leaned toward exploring rational alternatives and human introspection.
The cultural shock of love and morality faced by Korean immigrants also surfaced in these works, with authors using their writing to propose new models. These novels bridged Korean literature with local experiences, and from the March 1st Movement to liberation, 13 such works emerged.
Notable Themes and Works:
- Patriotic Spirit and Ethical Love: Dreams of Home, Comrades, Sprinkling Affection on the Grave, The Expedition Team, The People Who Ate Rocks, and The Dawn Path.
- Exploration of Inner Humanity: To My Beloved Sister, Free Marriage, Microscope, and Rugosa Rose.
- Critique of Social Issues: Tuki dealt with racial prejudice and economic disparity.
- Religious Novels: The Light of Love and The Last Days of Waywardness emerged, introducing themes unseen in mainstream Korean literature.
Professor Jo Kyu-ik, in his book Pre-Liberation Korean-American Immigrant Literature, argued that these early immigrant novels were as artistically significant as those in Korea and should be integrated into Korean literary history through comprehensive evaluation.
Noteworthy Publications:
- 1909.8.25: The establishment of the “Boy’s Book Club” by Korean-American leaders aimed at publishing various books. Their first work, The Tale of Animals (banned in Korea), was distributed to fellow Koreans.
- 1914.8.25: The Tale of Animals by An Guk-seon, priced at 25 jeon per copy, became a well-known novel banned in Korea but accessible abroad.
Literary Activities
In 1943, the Korean-American Cultural Association was founded in Los Angeles, led by Kim Chang-soon and Lee Chang-hee. Focused on education, literature, and science, the organization excluded political agendas. Distinguished figures, including Albert Einstein, served as advisors. Einstein chaired the scholarship fund committee.
The association aimed to spread Korean and East Asian cultures in American society by translating related works and distributing them to libraries. This initiative led to the establishment of Korean book collections in U.S. universities. The University of Hawaii was the first to set up such a collection on May 4, 1943, followed by the University of California a year later.
Publications and Authors:
- Peter Hyun
- Man Sei!: An autobiography covering his escape from Korea, life in Shanghai, and immigration to Hawaii at age 17.
- In the New World – The Making of a Korean American: Chronicles his adulthood, showcasing his father’s independence movement efforts and his journey as an immigrant adapting to American life.
- Easurk Emsen Charr
- The Golden Mountain: Published after his service in World War I on April 5, 1918.
- Kang Younghill (1903–1972):
- Born in northern Korea and immigrated to the U.S. just before the Asian Exclusion Act. Wrote The Grass Roof and East Goes West. Opposed racial conflicts and anti-democratic coercion while advocating for minority rights.
- Richard E. Kim
- The Martyred: Exposed Japanese oppression under forced name changes.
- Other Authors and Works:
- Koh Taiwon: The Bitter Fruit of Kom-pawi
- Baik In-deok: September Monkey
- Yu Ilhan: When I Was a Boy in Korea
- Lee Mary Paik: Quiet Odyssey
- Kim Nanyoung: Clay Walls
- George Herbert Jones: Multiple works on Korean immigrants.
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