In 1900, the initial wave of formal immigration to the United States consisted of labor immigrants who were brought to work on the sugarcane plantations of Hawaii. At that time, the Joseon Dynasty in Korea was undergoing political turmoil with widespread economic oppression and exploitation. Japanese investors were purchasing farmlands, leaving the peasants landless and suffering under the corrupt practices of greedy officials. Moreover, a severe drought in the Hamgyeong Province in 1901 triggered a food crisis, forcing many to search for food and work in far places like Siberia, Manchuria, or major cities such as Seoul, Incheon, and Wonsan. To make matters worse, a cholera and typhus epidemic in the summer of 1902 claimed the lives of 300 to 400 people daily.
In response, Emperor Gojong, anticipating another poor harvest in the fall of 1902, issued a ban on rice exports on July 26 and halted non-urgent civil engineering works. He also released prisoners convicted of serious crimes and issued a decree for health officials to focus all efforts on containing the epidemic.
Meanwhile, since the 1830s, Hawaii had been intensively cultivating sugarcane and needed cheap foreign labor. Starting in 1864, formal labor immigration contracts were made with Asian countries. To manage the influx of foreign laborers, an immigration bureau was established, and by 1882, nearly 50% of the labor force consisted of Chinese workers. To counterbalance, Japanese laborers were increasingly welcomed, and by 1902, they constituted 73% of the workforce. In 1900, the Organic Act was enacted and Hawaii became a U.S. territory, altering its administrative structure. This change in law meant new opportunities for labor immigrants to move to the mainland United States. This coincided with California beginning extensive development of fertile farmlands, attracting many laborers to the mainland. This caused a labor shortage in Hawaii, and Japanese laborers used this as a pretext for organizing 34 strikes between 1900 and 1905. Consequently, the Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Association (HSPA) turned its attention to Korean laborers and requested Horace Allen, the U.S. Minister to Korea, to propose overseas immigration to Emperor Gojong.
Horace Allen, a medical missionary sent by the Northern Presbyterian Church of the USA, arrived in Seoul on September 22, 1884. He had become the royal physician after treating Min Young-ik, a government official injured during the Gapsin Coup, and, with government support, established Gwanghyewon, the forerunner to Severance Hospital, and taught medicine. Having won the favor of Emperor Gojong, he later became the U.S. Minister to Korea.
Allen, who actively advocated for opening U.S. doors to Koreans, met with a director of the HSPA, Mr. Irwin, during a vacation to the U.S. in late 1901 and learned of Hawaii’s labor shortage. Upon returning to Seoul, Allen had an audience with Emperor Gojong and argued that sending people to Hawaii for farming and introducing new culture would be a wise policy, especially as the people were suffering from famine and keen on national development.
Considering the geopolitical circumstances, Emperor Gojong approved the emigration to maintain Korea’s independence from neighboring powers. Allen then sent a report to the U.S. stating Emperor Gojong’s pride in allowing Koreans to immigrate during a time when Chinese entry was being restricted.
On May 9, 1902, the HSPA began posting notices throughout Korea to recruit emigrants. A company established by Deshler, a friend who had helped Allen politically, handled the practical arrangements. Allen helped Deshler by arranging labor, and for each worker recruited, Deshler received $55. Allen, who had a Japanese wife and owned a house in Japan, planned to use his ship for transportation, foreseeing a lucrative business in carrying workers to Japan en route to the U.S.
Allen praised Koreans to the Governor of Hawaii in his letters, describing them as patient, industrious, and gentle—easy to govern due to their long history of obedience. He noted that Koreans were more docile than the Chinese, who were criticized by planters for their expensive food habits, asserting that Koreans’ staple diet included more meat compared to the Chinese. He also requested financial assistance for the impoverished Korean workers, as the Korean government was unwilling to fund their travel expenses. This request led to the financing of emigrant transportation costs, which included ship fares and meal expenses, significantly expanding the opportunities for poor Koreans to emigrate.
The money that had to be prepaid covered transportation costs including ship fare and food, amounting to $150. Plantation owners preferred hiring Asians over Europeans because the cost for Europeans was $150 per person, whereas for Asians, it was around $70, thus significantly reducing expenses. On August 20, 1902, Emperor Gojong appointed Min Young-hwan, who was knowledgeable about overseas affairs, as the chief commissioner of immigration and established the “Suminwon,” an agency equipped with functions for overseas development. The Suminwon was set up within the royal court, and extensive recruitment advertisements were posted in major cities such as Seoul, Busan, Incheon, and Wonsan through the Hwangseong Newspaper.
The advertisements stated, “Anyone going to Hawaii can receive government support. Hawaii has a good climate, schools do not charge tuition, English is taught for free, and the salary is 15 won (about $15, roughly equivalent to 67 won) per month. Work is 10 hours a day with Sundays off. Housing and drinking water are provided, and medical expenses are covered by the employer if one falls ill.”
However, the people were reluctant to leave their ancestral lands, seeing it as a great sin, and they were cold to the idea of leaving their families and hometowns.
Due to this, Pastor G.H. Jones of Yongdong Church (now Nari Methodist Church) in Jemulpo (now Incheon), a city bustling with international trade just 10 years after its port had opened, actively encouraged his congregation to immigrate. Thanks to his efforts, half of the first 121 immigration applicants were members of his church. As many of the early immigrants in America were church members, the Korean-American community naturally became church-centered in later years.
The first group of 121 immigrants, including 50 church members (both men and women), 20 laborers from Jemulpo port, and 51 people from various professions across the country, boarded the first immigration ship with passports issued under Min Young-hwan’s name.
Among them were church members, students aiming to study, rural scholars, soldiers, farm servants, laborers, and even vagabonds. 65% of them were illiterate, and almost none could understand English. Their motivation for emigrating was mostly to escape the political and social turmoil caused by Japanese aggression and to seek relief from their economic hardships. The first immigrant ship left Jemulpo on December 22, 1902, arriving in Kobe, Japan, where they underwent physical examinations to determine if they were fit to enter the United States.
Out of the initial group, 20 were disqualified, leaving only 101 who arrived at Honolulu, Hawaii, on January 13, 1903. The group comprised 56 men, 22 women, and 23 children. Astonishingly, 8 were sent back due to eye problems. Thus, the first immigrant ship, the SS Gaelic, brought 93 Koreans to Hawaii. Between 1903 and 1905, 6,048 men, 637 women, and 541 children entered, totaling 7,226 immigrants across 15 voyages. Despite enduring severe seasickness and other hardships during the month-long voyage, 479 were sent back due to health issues. The emotions of those having to return after such a long journey can only be imagined. Although there were a few ginseng merchants and students in San Francisco earlier, the people officially sent through the Suminwon are considered the pioneers of immigration. They settled on a strange island, harboring dreams of one day returning to their homeland in glory—truly the first pioneers of Korean immigration to the Americas.
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