The Early Korean Immigrant Society in America as Seen Through Newspaper Articles: This Is How They Lived

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Korean Population Census and Immigration Data from the Shinhan Minbo and U.S. Senate Submissions by Immigration Commissioners
Early 1900s: 165 men and 3 women, totaling 168 individuals.
1903 to 1924: 6,725 men and 675 women, totaling 7,400 immigrants.
1905: Labor immigration was banned due to Japanese interference.
1906 to 1910: 182 men and 40 women, totaling 222 immigrants.
March 1907: Immigration law revisions prohibited Asian entry to the U.S. from Hawaii, Canada, South America, and other regions.
May 31, 1907: San Francisco’s population was 400,000, with 75,000 students.
June 21, 1907: 1,000 Koreans were recorded in Mexico.
1910 to 1924: About 900 women came to Hawaii or the U.S. mainland, primarily through spousal invitations, picture marriages, as students, or as exiles.
December 13, 1917 (Shinhan Minbo Korean American Statistics): “The adult population in California and nearby areas is 1,127. Including those in the East, women, and minors, the total Korean American population can be estimated at approximately 2,000.”
By 1920: Approximately 1,000 Koreans returned to their homeland, either due to homesickness or illness.
1916 U.S. Census Statistics: Total U.S. population: 105,688,200. Korean population: 1,224.
1924 to 1945: Except for students, Asian immigration was entirely banned, with only 300 Korean students entering the U.S. during this period.
1930 U.S. Census: 6,461 Koreans in Hawaii and 1,916 on the mainland, totaling 8,332. By 1940, the total Korean American population increased to 8,568, never surpassing 10,000 before then.
1948 to 1950: 107 Koreans entered the U.S.
1950: Estimated Korean population: approximately 7,000 in Hawaii and 3,000 on the mainland, totaling 10,000.
1950 to 1964: 6,423 Korean women married to U.S. servicemen, 5,348 adopted orphans, and 3,278 individuals who came as students, doctors, or scientists and acquired permanent residency. During this period, men comprised less than 30% of Korean immigrants.
1965: The new Immigration Act (Hart–Celler Act) was enacted, allowing 170,000 immigrants annually from Pacific Rim countries (with a quota of 20,000 per country) and 120,000 from Europe. After 1975, South Korea’s quota increased to 30,000.

A Brief History

In Hawaii, where Korean immigration first began, 101 people arrived on January 13, 1903. That year, a total of 1,133 immigrants arrived, followed by 3,434 in 1904, and 2,659 in 1905. Over a span of two years, 7,226 individuals immigrated to Hawaii on 65 ships across 15 immigration recruitment efforts. Among them were 6,048 men, 637 women, and 541 children.

However, 983 individuals returned to Korea, unable to endure the harsh labor conditions. Many Koreans in Hawaii began migrating to the U.S. mainland starting in 1904. From 1905 to 1907, around 1,003 Korean laborers moved to the western regions of the mainland, working in railroads, fisheries, and mines. Including those who migrated for farming jobs, about 2,000 Koreans moved from Hawaii to the mainland.

In November 1905, Japan stripped Korea of its diplomatic sovereignty. Prior to this, Japan had already banned Korean labor immigration to Hawaii to prevent the overseas expansion of Korean influence. The Suminwon (Emigration Office), established under the orders of Emperor Gojong, closed in October 1903 due to budgetary constraints, only 11 months after its founding. The Immigration Development Company also ceased operations in April 1905 when the ban on overseas immigration was imposed.

Japan’s prohibition of Korean immigration to Hawaii has been attributed to several factors. It is believed that Japanese businessmen and laborers who had already established themselves in Hawaii requested that the Japanese government block Korean immigration to avoid competition. Additionally, during the Russo-Japanese War, Japan had filled labor shortages with Korean workers, but after the war ended, this need diminished. However, the Japanese government’s continued enforcement of the immigration ban was driven by a policy to suppress the anti-Japanese sentiment among overseas Koreans.

In the United States, hostility toward Japanese laborers was strong. In March 1907, President Theodore Roosevelt proposed legislation to prevent Japanese and Korean laborers in Hawaii from migrating to the U.S. mainland, which Congress passed. Furthermore, the U.S. announced that it would no longer recognize passports issued by the Korean government, which had lost its diplomatic sovereignty. From November 1907 onward, Koreans seeking to enter the U.S. were required to carry passports issued by Japan’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

In 1910, the U.S. recorded a Korean population of 4,533 in Hawaii and 461 on the mainland. However, it is believed that a significant number of Koreans on the mainland were not counted in the census. By 1911, only eight Koreans immigrated to the U.S.

Five years after immigration was halted, a survey by the Korean National Association revealed that 946 men and 19 women had returned to Korea, while 45 had died. The remaining population in Hawaii was 4,187, with 107 children born there. Many Koreans who migrated to the U.S. mainland were drawn by rumors of better job opportunities and higher wages in railroad companies and farms. By 1910, an estimated 2,000 to 2,500 Koreans had settled in areas like San Francisco and Los Angeles.

Between 1918 and 1922, 197 picture brides came to the U.S., while around 1,000 political exiles arrived between 1914 and 1918. From 1910 to 1919, a significant number of Koreans fled Korea without passports, referred to as “refugee students” in Korea and “new student arrivals” in the U.S. These individuals, stateless, were allowed entry with the sponsorship of the Korean National Association.

Starting in 1921, Japan’s colonial administration of Korea shifted from military to civilian governance, opening the door for Koreans to study in the U.S. with Japanese passports. Between 1921 and 1940, 289 individuals came to the U.S. However, Japanese authorities closely monitored Korean students and often forced them to return home after completing their studies. Despite these challenges, 15% of Korean students during this period earned doctoral degrees.

During World War II, between 1940 and 1941, only four Koreans entered the U.S.—two pastors to purchase Bibles and two students.

In 1940, the U.S. passed the Alien Registration Act, requiring all foreigners to register between August 27 and December 26. A total of 4,741,000 foreigners were recorded as residing in the U.S. After the war ended in 1946, foreign wives of U.S. servicemen, individuals associated with U.S. military bases and institutions overseas, and students began migrating to the U.S. in greater numbers. Many of these immigrants obtained permanent residency and settled in the U.S.

Between 1959 and 1969, a total of 33,518 Koreans immigrated to the U.S.

Return of Early Immigrants

The early immigrants, exhausted by hard labor and filled with homesickness, often found themselves consumed by loneliness.

Most of them had left their wives and children behind in Korea and came to the United States alone. With few sources of joy in their lives, some sought escape through alcohol, drugs, or gambling. Those who lost their money gambling sometimes resorted to borrowing, and when they couldn’t repay their debts, they turned to theft. There were instances where individuals stole money painstakingly earned by other Korean immigrants, disappearing or returning to Korea afterward. Some even robbed funds pooled by farm workers before fleeing.

Even among those who worked diligently, many succumbed to homesickness or grew disillusioned with the harsh labor and unfamiliar lifestyle, ultimately deciding to return to Korea. Others returned due to illness. Articles in the Empire News (1905) and the Kyung-Hyang Newspaper (1906) frequently reported on Koreans returning from America. According to these reports, emigration companies appeared to show some consideration for immigrants compelled to return home due to illness.

As the trend of returning to Korea spread among Korean communities in the U.S., The New Korea, the official newspaper of the Korean National Association, repeatedly published editorials urging against such decisions. For example, the October 13, 1909, edition featured a piece titled “To Those Returning Home,” which discouraged premature returns. The newspaper also shared stories of individuals who, after returning to Korea, felt disillusioned by their homeland and lack of employment opportunities, prompting them to return to America.

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Key Excerpts:

• April 7, 1909: “I wish to return home, but now is not the time”
  “Without independence, there is no homeland to return to. Everyone wants to go back, but without a country or a home, we must endure the hardships here. Let us wait until independence is achieved, and then we can proudly sing the ‘Return Song’ as we go home.”Excerpt from the ‘Return Song’:
  
  “Return, return, Korean compatriots in America, return.
  Ring the bell of freedom loudly and raise the independence flag high.
  Once we advance without retreat, we shall return, we shall return…”
  
• October 13, 1909: “To Those Returning Home: Do Not Waste This Golden Opportunity”
  *”Young men from Canada are willing to pay 500 won in entrance fees just to come here.America is known worldwide as the ‘Golden Land.’ With one hour of labor, you can earn five Korean nyang, 40 nyang for a day’s work, and a handful of gold in a month. What work in the East can bring you such profit?Now that labor immigration is closed to the East, it’s impossible to step foot in America as a worker, no matter how much money you have. To those who wish to return home, we earnestly implore you not to go. If you must return, at least ensure you’ve earned enough money—perhaps as much as your peers—before leaving.The reason many leave with just 300 or 400 won is said to be the longing for parents or family, but we firmly urge you not to make a hasty decision to return and waste the rare opportunity you have been given.”*

Immigrant Community in Northern California Through the Shinan Minbo

At the time, Koreans used to name American cities, particularly those with large Korean populations, in a way that was easier for them to pronounce. Honolulu was called “Ho-hang,” San Francisco was “Sang-hang,” Los Angeles was “Na-seong,” Washington DC was “Hwa-bu,” Riverside was “Ha-byeon,” Salt Lake City was “Yeom-ho,” Sacramento was “Sak-do,” Mexico was “Muk-guk,” and Vladivostok was called “Haesamwi” because it was believed to be abundant with sea cucumbers.

Chronological Events:

• 1907. 9. 20: The plague broke out in San Francisco.
• 1907. 10. 4: In Sacramento, a rule was established that prohibited Koreans from entering Chinese neighborhoods due to frequent unpleasant incidents.
• 1907. 10. 11: In San Francisco, attention was paid to preventing the plague, and police officers inspected restaurants, tested cleanliness, and paid 10 cents for each rat caught.
• 1908. 1. 15: After being elected, San Francisco Mayor Tella focused on public health and cleanliness, expelling brothels from the city center.
• 1908. 5. 20: In Sacramento, three Korean homes prospered, with one hosting a public office, a missionary office, and a guesthouse together, which was considered very beautiful.
• 1908. 9. 9: The community moved to a new location to facilitate the lodging and meals of visiting Koreans at the Sacramento headquarters.
• 1909. 2. 17: At the Sanghang National Club, there was a debate about whether practice was more valuable than theory, with Lee Dae-wee, Jeong Won-do, and Song Jong-ik participating.
• 1909. 3. 24: There were many rogue elements in Oakland, and a Korean who had been scammed while trying to go to Alaska reported it to the Shinan Minbo.
• 1909. 5. 26: During a famine in the Munchon region of Hamgyeongnam-do, Koreans in the U.S. collected funds to send aid.
• 1909. 6. 2: The population of San Francisco had reached 600,000, three times higher than it was three years ago.
• 1909. 10. 6: The newspaper criticized the harmful habits of Koreans, especially those involved in gambling and opium use.
• 1910. 11. 29: The establishment of the Korean Club in San Francisco was celebrated by youth Koreans.
• 1913. 6. 30: The population of San Francisco reached 505,652, an increase of 23,722 people from the previous year.
• 1913. 7. 4: The local government introduced a trolley line connecting Geary Street to the ferry terminal.
• 1913. 10. 13: The North American Association introduced a mandatory $5 fee for members to help expand social activities.
• 1913. 11. 21: Oakland raised liquor license fees from $500 to $1,000 and reduced the number of taverns to 200.
• 1914: The San Francisco community discussed whether achieving success was more important than educating the people.
• 1915. 7. 12: A tragic incident in which a Korean man named Park Yong-man was attacked by a follower of Ahn Chang-ho.
• 1916. 4. 27: The discovery of a 5-million-year-old pearl by a student at Stanford University was reported.
• 1916. 9. 28: San Francisco’s 1915 World’s Fair was discussed with several countries participating.
• 1917. 3. 15: A proposal was made to impose a head tax on foreign men aged 21 to 60 in California.
• 1917. 3. 22: A self-governing Korean police force was established in Sacramento.
• 1917. 5. 17: A tragic event where a Korean man in Stockton was shot and killed by his gambling companion.
• 1917. 5. 24: A Stanford University graduate ceremony was held, with a total of 429 graduates, including 22 doctors of medicine.
• 1917. 5. 24: The daily income of Koreans was about $2.50 to $3.50, equivalent to 5-8 Korean won.
• 1917. 6. 7: The registration for enlistment in San Francisco was reported, with only 5,000 out of 60,000 passing.
• 1917. 9. 13: Koreans in Stockton donated money for a women’s missionary meeting.
• 1917. 11. 8: A new wartime postal tax was implemented in the U.S.
• 1917. 11. 15: The number of taverns in San Francisco decreased from 2,100 to 1,768 over the past two years.
• 1917. 11. 22: Negotiations were underway between the Southern Pacific Railroad and the Key Route ferry company to raise transportation fees.
• 1918. 1. 31: The Japanese community in San Francisco investigated the Korean population residing in the area.
• 1918. 3. 14: Three Korean women in Sacramento joined the National Association, an act of social advancement.
• 1918. 3. 21: A warning against sending money in letters as they might be censored.
• 1918. 3. 21: A new marriage law was announced by the Mexican branch of the Korean National Association.
• 1918. 4. 4: The streets of San Francisco became more crowded due to wartime activities.
• 1918. 5. 24: Koreans in San Francisco held an outdoor worship service at Golden Gate Park.
• 1918. 8. 8: The U.S. government implemented a sugar rationing law due to a shortage caused by the war.
• 1918. 8. 22: As part of wartime regulations, San Francisco experienced blackout measures, causing the city to become eerily dark at night.
• 1918. 8. 29: Koreans living near Maxwell gathered to commemorate the anniversary of Korea’s national humiliation.
• 1918. 9. 5: A 60-year-old Korean man, Li Chang-seo, living alone in Sacramento, was reported to have no relatives. Efforts were made to send him back to Korea or place him in a retirement home.
• 1918. 11. 21: The 13th anniversary of the Shinan Minbo was celebrated, with a speech recalling the difficulties faced during the 1906 San Francisco earthquake.
• 1918. 12. 5: The North American Association sent fundraising delegates to California’s rice fields.
• 1919. 8. 28: The Sacramento branch of the National Association thanked Spencer and McCormick for their support of Korea.
• 1919. 10. 16: Dr. Kim Kyu-sik of the Korean Missionary Committee spoke about the situation in Korea and urged support for public bonds.
• 1924: Han Young-dae from Stanford University successfully conducted an experiment that treated a disease by injecting Asian blood plasma into a white person.
• 1936. 11. 14: At the dedication ceremony of the San Francisco-Oakland Bridge, Koreans won awards.
• 1941. 4. 20: A Korean-American conference was held in Honolulu to organize the Korean-American Federation.
• 1941. 12. 12: The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea declared war on Japan and informed the U.S., Britain, China, and the Soviet Union.
• ◈ April 16, 1942: The National Youth Association held a rally in the same location as in previous years, gathering representatives from each branch and 56 second-generation youths.
• ◈ June 25, 1942: The Korean residents in Oakland, San Francisco, number only about a hundred, including elderly and children. Around 50 people participated in the MacArthur celebration, marking the complete mobilization of the Korean community in Oakland.
• ◈ July 9, 1942: On July 7, when the Chinese residents in Oakland held a memorial procession for the fifth anniversary of their resistance, the Koreans participated as the fifth group. Details of the participation will be posted once communications are received.
• ◈ August 13, 1942: The Korean police force in Oakland has been fully organized, now numbering 27 members. They undergo training every Sunday from 2 to 4 PM and Wednesday from 8 to 10 PM at the Army Depot ‘Amory Hall’. Their soldiers have submitted their military registration forms to the California military command. They have also submitted a petition to the California government for authorization to form a Korean police force. Once the permit is granted, they plan to arm themselves and work in coordination with the Korean police force in Los Angeles. The combined forces of the Northern and Southern California Korean police will be even more formidable, and their enemies will tremble.
• ◈ August 29, 1942, Los Angeles City Hall Flag-Raising Ceremony:
• ◈ September 3, 1942: The 28 Korean residents of Oakland attending the flag-raising ceremony in Los Angeles can be considered a total mobilization of the Oakland Korean community. Business owners even closed their stores for several days to witness the raising of our national flag at Los Angeles City Hall, sacrificing their business profits to see this historic event.
• ◈ September 17, 1942: The Korean American Federation held a welcome dinner for the community members who attended the flag-raising ceremony at Los Angeles City Hall on August 29.
• Speech by Kim Dong-woo, Oakland correspondent: “The Korean residents in Oakland are thrilled to have witnessed the flag-raising ceremony in Los Angeles. How pleased do you think our 23 million people would be to see our flag raised? And how happy do you think the spirits of our fallen heroes would be to know this? Today’s ceremony is something we all feel deeply, both in life and death. In the past, we marked our suffering, but from today onward, let us proudly display our flag and work toward restoring our honor.”
• ◈ October 1, 1942: The city authorities in Oakland built an air-raid shelter underground in Union Square, at a cost of 1.5 million dollars and a year of construction. On September 22 at 2 PM, the Victory Committee held a ceremony for its completion, and members of the National Association in the Oakland region received invitations. Mrs. Eda, Mrs. Catherine, and Mrs. Alice Kim attended, dressed in traditional Korean clothing, and received a warm welcome from the audience.
• ◈ February 18, 1943: The national flower of our country is the hibiscus, which symbolizes eternity as it continues to bloom endlessly.
• ◈ February 25, 1943: The Korean Women’s Missionary Society in Oakland, Northern California, collected over $200 in donations for the Korean Liberation Army and sent it via ship to Chongqing to support the army.
• ◈ December 23, 1943 (North America Daily): The Northern California Korean Political Meeting was held in San Francisco. After the Pearl Harbor attack, Korean organizations in Northern California held a political meeting at the Oakland Methodist Church on November 12.
• ◈ April 27, 1946: The Manteca area in Northern California, with its vast sugar beet fields over a thousand acres, is home to over 60 Korean families. Recently, a church and a Korean language school were established, and about 30 individuals decided to form a local chapter under the National Association. The Northern American Assembly issued an approval certificate for the establishment of this local chapter on April 2.
• ◈ October 24, 1946: The California Chamber of Commerce visited Northern and Southern California to promote the organization and appointed Park Young-seop, Han Kyu-dong, and Kang Young-moon as editors of the monthly ‘Bulletin’.
• ◈ November 14, 1946: In Oakland, Kim Eun-hye bought a 3rd-floor house on Telegraph Avenue for $52,500 and opened a business. Lee Chun bought a house on 5th Street for $5,000 and moved in.
• ◈ December 19, 1946: Recently returned representatives from the Federation, Song Jong-ik and Kim Byung-yeon, will visit Korean communities in Northern California to convey news from the homeland. They will leave Los Angeles on December 27, with Song visiting Delano and Kim traveling to Oakland, Sacramento, Stockton, Walnut Grove, and other regions.
• ◈ February 19, 1948: Ha Hee-ok, residing in Oakland, moved into an apartment managed by Ahn Young-ho and his mother-in-law, Kim Ja-hye.
• ◈ March 11, 1948: Jeong Du-ok from Honolulu, Hawaii, came to San Francisco. Her son Jeong Nam-gi, who was traveling to Hawaii in May last year with Jeong Kyung-moo and Lee Han-sik, was involved in a disaster near Mount Fusa, Japan, while en route from Gimpo Airport. His remains, along with those of ten other soldiers, were brought to San Francisco. On February 25, a funeral ceremony was held at the San Bruno Military Cemetery, after which Jeong’s wife received treatment at Donghwa Hospital.
• ◈ November 4, 1948: Ryu Il-han, who moved to Mountain View near Oakland, held a housewarming party on October 17 from 3 PM to 7 PM, inviting 50-60 Korean and American friends. The event was a huge success.
• ◈ November 25, 1948: Those who have lived in the U.S. for more than seven years can obtain permanent residency. If you wish to apply, please contact the General Affairs Officer, Choi Jin-ha, at the Central Chamber of Commerce.
• ◈ December 16, 1948: The Korean government representative, Min Hee-sik, arrived in San Francisco and announced that a consulate would be established in Los Angeles with 600 residents and a vice-consulate in San Francisco with 120 residents.
• ◈ December 30, 1948: The United States will spend 125 million dollars on reconstruction costs for the South Korean government.
• ◈ April 25, 1951: The California Supreme Court ruled that the land law discriminating against foreigners, in place since May 1913, is unconstitutional.
• ◈ May 2, 1953: A special day was designated as “Korea Day,” and relief goods such as clothing and other supplies were collected across the U.S. for victims of the Korean War. Advertisements were placed in newspapers, and radio and television broadcasts along with support from mayors of various cities led to the collection of goods worth tens of millions of dollars, which were shipped to Korea.