Read in Korean

Educational Efforts of Early Koreans

The educational initiatives of early Koreans focused on two main areas: teaching adults who arrived unfamiliar with American ways, and educating the second generation in the Korean language, writing, and culture.

Most early Korean immigrants who arrived in Hawaii were illiterate. They attended Korean language schools in the evenings and on Saturdays to learn Hangeul (the Korean alphabet).

An enlightenment movement was particularly necessary to awaken the early first-generation immigrants from ignorance. In this sense, it was fortunate that newspaper publishing began alongside early immigration. The Sinhan Minbo (New Korea Times) not only delivered news of the Korean community and connected Koreans scattered across the Americas but also played a leading role in guiding the community through contributions and editorials from intellectuals and leaders.

An article in the Sinhan Minbo concerning children’s education stated: “Educating children involves valuing liberty and independence, cultivating noble character, and training strong bodies—focusing on spiritual education rather than mere physical form. It aims to develop a sense of rights and duties, fostering self-respect and self-esteem. It involves teaching at least one skill so they do not rely on others, nurturing the power of self-governance… (ellipsis) …to become a people who understand the world with a spirit of independence and self-reliance… (ellipsis) …to cherish the homeland, remember and not forget the most tragic situation of our people, and understand the duties they have towards such a nation and people.”

Leaders deeply committed to education encouraged reading by importing newspapers and magazines from Korea and established learning centers (gangseupso) in various locations to teach both Korean and English.

Between 1903 and 1905, approximately 400 Korean children arrived in Hawaii with their parents.

On September 2, 1906, the Hawaii Methodist Church established the first Korean school in Honolulu, the ‘Korean Boarding School’ (Hanin Gisuk Hakgyo). Many more schools were subsequently founded.

Between 1905 and 1925, Korean language schools were established in chapels and churches in Korean communities throughout the mainland US. For adults, these schools often held daily classes. Despite being exhausted from hard labor during the day, immigrants diligently strove to learn the Korean script. Korean language education for the second generation typically took place on Saturdays and during school vacations.

The Korean National Association (KNA – Daehanin Gungminhoe) supported the revitalization of education by providing monthly subsidies to Korean language schools. Records show that a diplomat named Yi Beom-jin, then stationed in Moscow, donated $100. This diplomat, clearly showing special interest and affection for Korean language education, reportedly took his own life in 1911 upon hearing the news of the Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty in 1910. After his death, his estate, worth about $3,000, was sent to the KNA in America to support the independence movement, according to his will. Thanks to the efforts, dedication, and sacrifices of such enlightened leaders, the illiteracy rate, once over 60 percent, gradually decreased. After 1915, it became rare to find a Korean resident in America who could not read a Korean-language newspaper.

(Image Caption) Rev. Lee Dae-wi (left) and the San Francisco Korean School, 1926

A 1933 statistic comparing the enrollment rates of various Asian groups showed that Koreans had the highest rate at 31%. However, after Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1942 and the US entry into World War II, mother tongue education for various Asian groups was legally suspended. Korean language schools resumed starting in 1944.

San Francisco

In January 1906, a night school was opened at the Korean Mission led by Reverend Mun Gyeong-ho, with male and female teachers. According to a 1913 report by Kang Young-so, the educational affairs officer of the Sanghang (San Francisco) regional association, there were 30 Korean students (male and female) in the Bay Area, with 15 boys and 15 girls.

Records indicate that Korean students attended schools such as Emerson and Hamilton Elementary Schools in Sunnyvale and Lowell Junior High School in Mountain View during that time. On October 27, 1916, the ‘Sanghang Student Association’ held its first meeting at the Sanghang Korean Church. Baik Il-gyu, one of the founding committee members of the Berkeley Student Training Center in Northern California, secured a budget of 300 won from the school authorities in 1918 and ran promotional articles in the Sinhan Minbo, encouraging young people to study and soliciting applications.

According to his ‘Survey of Our Students’ announced on June 6, 1918, the total number of Korean students in San Francisco, from elementary school to university, was 22.

For Korean language schools, there were 4 students in San Francisco, 7 in Maxwell and Willows, 15 in Sacramento, and 6 in Manteca.

Records show that Im Jeong-gu received a degree from the Pacific School of Religion in 1929, and Song Heung-guk in 1933. Mun Deok-so graduated from San Francisco’s Galileo High School in 1931, and David Shin and Carol Woo graduated from San Francisco Junior College in 1939. Paul Yang graduated from San Francisco State University, Lee Ki-seong graduated from Sacramento Junior College in 1934, and H.K. Song graduated from the Pacific School of Religion.

According to the Korean Student Bulletin, the ‘San Francisco Korean Junior Club’ was formed on August 26, 1929. It held its first official meeting on August 30, stating its purpose was to foster fellowship among Korean students and cultivate pride in being Korean, and elected officers.

In 1934, The Korean Student Bulletin reported that there were 2,289 Korean students in Hawaii, with 187 graduating that year.

Also, from August 23 to September 2, 1936, the World Student Christian Federation held a conference at Mills College in Oakland, Northern California, attended by 150 students from 16 countries. Koreans attending included Elizabeth Lee, Mary Lee, and Alexander Huh. In December 1943, Professor Choi Bong-youn, who taught Korean at Berkeley, published a book titled Korean Reader. Starting with Hangeul charts, words, and simple sentences, it covered diverse topics like geography, history, and culture. Priced at $2, it was intended for Korean language instruction.

(Image Caption) Korean university student meeting held in 1940

The Junior Korean Student Club was launched in San Francisco on August 26, 1929, with 15 students under the guidance of Reverend Hwang Sa-seon. At its first meeting on August 30, Frank Choi was elected president. A new club was deemed necessary due to the significant age and generational differences between American-born students and students from Korea. The club’s objectives were to promote fellowship among young students living in San Francisco, help the younger Korean generation learn to live together, learn Korean culture and history to foster pride in being Korean, and serve the Korean people.

Sacramento (then called ‘Sakdo’)

On March 12, 1914, Kim Hong-gyun and Mrs. Kim Byeong-gyu of the Sacramento Korean School began teaching Korean studies and language.

In 1917, through Kim Hong-gyun’s efforts, a two-story house at 423 T St. was acquired and fully furnished with bedrooms, a dining room, etc., to establish the ‘Sakdo Korean Dormitory’. Sacramento was a center for labor, attracting many young students, and the lack of a dormitory had been an issue. Kim Hong-gyun founded it, and Choi Neung-ik managed the dormitory. Students were provided with meals, allowing them to focus solely on their studies without worry. During the off-season from winter to spring, dormitory fees could be paid on credit.

During the busy summer, students worked on farms to pay off their winter dormitory fees. Admission required a firm commitment to studying. Initially, six students gathered at the dormitory. For language instruction, a church space was borrowed, teachers were appointed to teach for several hours, and students who reached the required level were admitted to public schools.

On February 2, 1918, a Korean language school was established within the regional association, and teacher Jo Jin-hwan was selected to begin teaching five students.

In 1934, Lee Ki-seong entered Sacramento Junior College, and in 1935, Kim Chang-ho transferred from Sacramento Junior College to Minnesota College.

Stockton

In 1932, young Korean students living in Stockton formed a group called the ‘Orbit Circle’.

In 1933, the new officers of the ‘Orbit Circle’ were Henry Lee (President), Esther Kim (Secretary), and Philip Park (Treasurer).

Berkeley Dormitory and Training Center (Yangseongso)

In January 1918, the Sinhan Minbo ran an announcement recruiting students: “Those who realize the heavy responsibility of our nation and wish to sacrifice even half of themselves should decide to come to the Berkeley Student Training Center. Send a deposit of 10 won before June 30th, and the remaining 100 won for a year’s room and board can be brought upon admission or sent beforehand.”

The center was intended to allow students to study at the nearby University of California, one public middle school, three private middle schools, and local elementary schools.

After completing preparations, the Berkeley Training Center opened on September 10, 1918, renting a two-story house at 1919 Edison St. “All facilities are fully equipped, and the doors opened on the 10th to accept boarding students. Nine students have submitted applications, and more are expected to come.”

On October 12, 1918, the Berkeley Training Center held its opening ceremony. The establishment of the center was the first educational project in a decade for the KNA North American General Assembly. Officials from the General Assembly and the center’s staff attended the opening ceremony held at 8 PM that day. The founding committee member was Baik Il-gyu.

The budget for equipping the Berkeley Training Center was initially 300 won, including 100 won from student dormitory fees. However, due to rising prices, the equipping committee member Im Jeong-gu requested 500 won, but the North American General Assembly only approved an increase of 35 won.

News Related to Northern California Students from Sinhan Minbo

◈ 1906. 1. 8: [Entry missing content in source]
◈ 1907. 11. 8: A night school has been established at the Sacramento Korean Church hall, and Western teachers have been invited to teach English and composition.
◈ 1909. 1. 20: Book for learning English without a teacher – Send 50 jeon before it runs out. Publisher: Gonglip Sinbo Press.
◈ 1913. 8. 1: Kim Won-taek, who runs a tomato farm in Sunnyvale, saw his two sons, Yeon-seong and Yong-seong, return to Sunnyvale on July 27th after studying in Nebraska.
◈ 1913. 10. 3: Sunnyvale is a base for our Korean farming, attracting a steady stream of Koreans, so many students gather and study enjoyably. We record the names and grades of these students below to support their future prospects. Gu Yeon-seong (Middle School, 3rd year), Kim Yong-seong (2nd year), Kang Young-gak (2nd year), Jeong Jang-son (2nd year), Lee Bo-pae (Elementary, 5th year), Heo Sun-bok (4th year), Heo Sun-deok (3rd year), Lee Bo-syu (2nd year).
◈ 1916. 11. 1: First meeting of the Sanghang Student Association – “Sanghang (San Francisco), being near the University of California, has seen a gradual increase in resident Korean university students, leading to the formation of the Korean Student Club. On the 27th of last month at 8 PM, the first meeting was held at the local Korean church, demonstrating the spirit of fellowship.”
◈ 1916. 11. 9: The Manteca Korean School, which had been temporarily closed, reopened on the 31st of last month. The teacher is Mrs. Kang Won-seo.
◈ 1917. 5. 10: The entire Korean community in Manteca raised $30 out of a pledged $150 to maintain the Hanheung Korean Language School. A committee of five was formed to discuss school matters regularly. It was decided to pay the teacher a monthly salary of $15.
◈ 1918. 1. 24: Preparations for establishing Sanghang Korean Language School – Officials of the Sanghang regional association decided to hold the school’s opening ceremony on the 31st at the residence of Mr. Choi Jeong-ik on Pine St. for the convenience of church members. Mr. Baik Il-gyu and his wife, Mrs. Kang Ellis, were selected as teachers. As this is the first concrete establishment of a Korean language school in Sanghang, a formal opening ceremony will be held on the 31st of this month to commemorate it.
◈ 1918. 3. 17: Sacramento Dormitory Vacation Ceremony – The vacation ceremony was held at 8:30 PM, attended by over 50 compatriots, making it a great success. Businessman Maeng Jeong-hui donated $20 to encourage the students.
◈ 1918. 5. 13: Practical training in chemistry for Mr. Hwang Jin-nam – Mr. Hwang Jin-nam, a third-year student at the University of California, went up to the Santa Cruz mountains after the semester ended for four weeks of practical training in mining surveying and returned to Sanghang.
◈ 1918. 6. 6: ‘Survey of Our Students’ announced, surveying the number of students across the entire US. Northern California Korean student numbers (from elementary to university): San Francisco 22, San Francisco Korean Language School 4, Maxwell and Willows 7, Sacramento 15, Manteca 6, Manteca Korean Language School 6, Marysville 5.
◈ 1918. 11. 21: The San Francisco Korean Language School, long closed due to the teacher’s absence, will reopen from November 21st. Student Byeon Jun-ho will serve as the teacher.
◈ 1924: George Kang attended Stanford and worked for the Korean student association.
◈ 1926. 8. 23: Song Nak-geun, nephew of Song Deok-yeong living in Maxwell, arrived in San Francisco to attend the San Francisco Bible Training School.
◈ 1927: Alexander Park is studying at Berkeley, while Joseph Joo and Shin Young-chul are studying at Stanford.
◈ 1928: E. C. Cho came to study at the San Francisco Theological Seminary.
◈ 1947. 8. 24: 33 male and female students arrived in Sanghang (San Francisco) from Korea to study various subjects and skills at professional schools and universities in different states.

Southern California Claremont Korean Student Training Center

The Southern California Claremont Korean Student Training Center, operated by the Korean National Association and supported by Ahn Chang-ho, was a Korean student training center located within the Claremont Colleges campus, known as the ‘Club House’. It served as a language training institution and lodging for Korean international students.

It is known that a student band was formed here, practicing musical skills in their spare time and holding concerts.

(Image Caption) Claremont Student Training Center Student Band, 1917

Funded and established by the Korean National Association on October 14, 1911, it initially housed 10 political exiles and international students. From 1911 to 1917, it served as a hostel for early Korean students and a place to learn about America and the English language. During the summer, it was a hall of learning where Korean language and writing were taught to second-generation children. Individuals initially involved with the center included Bang Hwa-jung, Lee Sun-gi, Kang Young-dae, and Im Du-hwa.

In 1917, Kang Young-seung and Jang I-uk were appointed as teachers, and the Daehanin Yunyeon Hagi Gukeo Gangseupso (Korean Youth Summer Korean Language Institute) was established to teach Korean children Korean script (Gukhanmun), drawing, and singing.

Gwak Rim-dae, who had fled Korea due to the 105-Man Incident, stayed here. Dosan (Ahn Chang-ho)’s wife lived next to the center and worked on an orange farm. As the Koreans living there moved to Los Angeles, the center naturally closed in 1917.

List of Northern California Korean Graduates

Although certainly more individuals graduated, this list, based on records from the Sinhan Minbo, shows which schools students attended during that era and who graduated when.

• 1931: Mun Deok-so, Florence Ha, Helen Shin graduated from San Francisco Galileo High School.
• 1932: Cho Eung-chul, San Francisco Theological Seminary.
• 1934: Jeong Ki-won, San Francisco Theological Seminary; H.K. Song, Pacific School of Religion.
• 1936: James Park, San Francisco Theological Seminary; Lee Jeong-dae, College of the Pacific (Stockton); Joseph Joo and Shin Young-chul, Stanford University.
• 1939: Paul Hwang graduated from San Francisco State College (B.A.); Jacob Kim and Paul Cho, University of California; Frank Cho, University of California Medical School; David Shin and Carol Woo, San Francisco Junior College.

On March 28, 1946, among the five graduates of Solano Elementary School were Mun-hui, the second daughter of Reverend Kim Tak, and Janet, the daughter of Mr. Kim Seok-jun.

Compilation of Textbooks by Korean Residents in America

The KNA Hawaii Regional Congress compiled two volumes (Upper, Lower) of the Elementary Korean Language Textbook (Chodeung Gukeo Gyogwaseo) on June 10, 1911, and three volumes (Upper, Middle, Lower) of the National Korean Language Course (Gungmin Gukeo Gwajeong) on February 8, 1917. The Daehanin Gyomindan (Korean Residents Association) compiled three volumes (Upper, Middle, Lower) of the National Reader (Gungmin Dokbon) in 1923. In the mainland US, the KNA North American General Assembly compiled the National Reader (Gungmin Dokbon) on November 2, 1909, and three volumes (Upper, Middle, Lower) of the Elementary National Self-Study Reader (Chodeung Gungmin Dokseup) on June 2, 1921.

Voice of America

As communication with their homeland was cut off, individuals pursuing research at American universities began participating in the independence struggle. Intellectuals gathered in San Francisco to participate in activities such as the ‘Voice of America’ broadcast, which played a crucial role in anti-Japanese information and propaganda at the time. Reverend Kim Ha-tae of the Sanghang (San Francisco) Methodist Church participated in the editing and transmission of these broadcasts, striving to make the church a beneficial institution for compatriots involved in the independence movement.

Korean Foundation Scholarship Program

An article in the San Francisco Gonglip Sinbo dated July 17, 1907, highlighted the need for education and proposed a system: “To educate students, those engaged in business should contribute educational funds to the Gonglip Hyeophoe (Mutual Assistance Association) for centralized management.” It noted that efforts by the Gonglip Hyeophoe to organize a student association to encourage study were hampered by lack of funds, and discussed scholarship initiatives.

“If one hundred people each contribute 50 jeon, that’s 50 won. With 50 won, three or four students can be educated; if a thousand people cooperate, 30 or 40 can be educated,” it urged, promoting fundraising by stating, “Regarding studying well with just one or two won of one’s own money, among us Koreans, another person studying well is the same as myself studying well.”

It advocated for the Gonglip Hyeophoe to nominate and select students, educate them according to the rules of its education department, and have them return to the homeland after graduation to educate students and devote themselves to the cause of liberation. On September 25th, to ensure education was not constrained by financial issues, a fundraising campaign was launched, appealing for contributions to the ‘Sanghang Gonglip Hyeophoe Support Fund Collection’ through the Maeil Sinbo newspaper company and its branches in Korea, as well as churches. Contributions were to be deposited with the Maeil Sinbo for remittance. Under the supervision of the education department, qualifying exams were held, and selected students received scholarships.

Eligibility requirements were: “Honest individuals aged 18 to 25, physically healthy and enthusiastic.” The exam consisted of an English composition (70-90 words), an English interview, and a Korean/Chinese character composition (100-150 characters). Translation from pure Classical Chinese to Korean was also required. Selected students received scholarships covering their education until graduation, with no obligations post-graduation.

On August 26, 1908, ten members of the Gonglip Hyeophoe, including Bang Hwa-jung, Lee Sun-gi, Kang Young-dae, and Im Jeong-gu, initiated the establishment of a school in the Los Angeles Claremont area. As a public school, there was no tuition, only dormitory fees of 75 won per year or 42 won per half-year. The school began recruiting students under the name of the Gonglip Hyeophoe Education Department from September 1908. Construction was completed in early September 1911, and a dedication ceremony was held on October 14, attended by many domestic and foreign dignitaries.

Starting in January 1955, the KNA North America General Assembly began sending $1,200 annually, in coordination with Yoo Seok-chang, president of Seoul Political Science College, to encourage the education of needy students in Korea who could not afford tuition.

On May 9, 1957, prominent figures in the Korean American community gathered in Reedley, Central California, to establish the ‘Korean Foundation’ (Haninjaedan) to promote the development of democracy and encourage higher education for our people. It was established as a non-political, non-profit organization chartered by the State of California to support international students coming to the US.

Its objectives included endorsing promising students, liaising with schools, arranging scholarships, and providing financial support. It aimed to support research necessary for the development of scientific and educational knowledge, sponsor publications in Korean or English, and support educational and charitable events.

The organization consisted of a Board of Directors and an Executive Branch, with five committees (Finance, Academic Affairs, Research, Social Affairs, Publications) handling specific tasks. Individuals donating basic assets or real estate worth $1,000 or more were designated Lifetime Members. Individuals who contributed financially or served the foundation’s purpose were designated Honorary Members. The regular membership comprised both Lifetime and Honorary Members.

Finances were covered by donations and aid. Initially, real estate worth $100,000 donated by the Kim Brothers company in Reedley formed the foundation’s base. The first year’s scholarship expenses were covered by $7,000 in income from that property and $2,400 in member contributions. Kim Ho and Kim Won-yong provided significant help in establishing this foundation.

Book Publishing

◈ English-Korean Dictionary (Yeonghan Sajeon) – Authored by Lee Won-ik in Los Angeles and published by the KNA Academic Department on March 2, 1910, due to the need and demand for English education among immigrants.
◈ The Spirit of Independence (Dokrip Jeongsin) – Authored by Syngman Rhee (Yi Seung-man) in America for the education of Korean Americans and published by the Daedong Gongbo Press on March 28, 1910.
◈ Theory of National Conscription (Gungmin Gaebyeongseol) – Authored by Park Yong-man in San Francisco to encourage military training and published by the Sinhan Minbo Press on April 10, 1911.
◈ Korean Economic History (Hanguk Gyeongjesa) – Authored by Baik Il-gyu in San Francisco for general education and published by the Sinhan Minbo Press on February 8, 1920.
◈ The Truth About Korea – Published in English by the KNA Central Congress on July 1, 1919, to publicize the independence movement in Korea.