Early Korean immigrant women in the United States sought to actively participate in the independence movement. This aspiration fostered a sense of patriotism and solidarity among women, leading to the formation of women’s associations aimed at promoting national pride and mutual friendship.
Prominent women of the time organized local women’s associations, and participation in these groups became widespread. After the March 1st Movement of 1919, Korean women criticized the lack of financial contributions to their homeland and resolved to spearhead fundraising efforts for the independence movement. Leaders rebuked their compatriots for prioritizing personal luxury while Koreans under Japanese rule suffered indignities, urging every Korean woman to join the cause for national liberation.
The first Korean Women’s Association was established in San Francisco in 1908. By 1914, another group emerged in Sacramento, and in 1917, a women’s evangelical society formed in Manteca. In 1919, the Shinhan Women’s Association was founded in Dinuba, California.
The Power of Unity
Inspired by the March 1st Movement, these groups recognized the strength of unity. Nearby associations merged or created broader federations to amplify their influence. On May 18, 1919, the Korean Women’s Associations of Sacramento and Dinuba united. By August 2, representatives from women’s associations in Dinuba, Los Angeles, Sacramento, San Francisco, and Willows convened in Dinuba to form a federation named the Korean Women’s Patriotic Corps (also referred to as the Korean Women’s Patriotic Association). This unified body played a significant role in advancing Korea’s independence movement through women’s efforts.
San Francisco: A Hub of Early Organizations
San Francisco became a key location for Korean activism. The first Korean group, the Mutual Assistance Association, was founded on September 23, 1903, by Ahn Chang-ho. This evolved into the Kongnip Hyophoe (Public Association) in 1905, engaging in political and independence activities. In December 1905, some members, including Jang Kyung and Kim Mirisa, formed the Daedong Educational Association to promote education.
In 1908, the Daedong Educational Association expanded into the Daedong Patriotic Society, and on May 23, 1908, Korean women in San Francisco organized the first Korean women’s group, The Korean Women’s Association. Meeting at the home of Miss Lake, the founding day drew both women and men. Speeches on “Women’s Duties and Social Rights” were delivered, and hymns were sung in English by Korean children. The association aimed to support Korean language education, church initiatives, and community solidarity while avoiding political disputes.
Under Kim Mirisa’s leadership, the group supported Korean orphanages, instilled patriotism in their children, and fostered camaraderie among Koreans in the area.
Sacramento: A Center of Activism
On March 29, 1917, the Korean Women’s Association of Sacramento was established as part of the Korean National Association’s efforts to boycott Japanese goods. Led by Yang Je-hyun, the group emphasized women’s equal participation in liberation efforts. In July 1919, the association petitioned the U.S. President to intervene in Japan’s atrocities against Koreans, demonstrating their commitment to justice and unity.
Sacramento women raised significant patriotic funds for the Korean National Association, with many donating multiple times. This collective fundraising effort highlighted the dedication and solidarity of Korean women in the United States.
Manteca: The Role of the Women’s Evangelical Society
The women’s association movement in California was centered around the Women’s Missionary Society. The society expanded to establish branches in Oakland, San Francisco, and Los Angeles. Near Sacramento, in Manteca, a women’s organization known as the “Women’s Missionary Society” or the “Korean Women’s Missionary Society” was established on March 5, 1917. Its purpose was to spread the Christian gospel by dispatching missionaries to different areas. The founding members were Han Shin-ae, Kim Jung-saeng, Choi Don-shin, Jeon Soon-hee, Kim Won-do, and Kang Yu-shin.
To expand its activities, the Korean Women’s Missionary Society purchased a mimeograph machine on March 17, further developing its organizational structure. This group holds significant historical importance as it marked the beginning of active gospel propagation led by Korean women following the introduction of Protestant Christianity to Korea in the late 19th century. The Women’s Missionary Society declared a manifesto asserting that men and women were inherently equal, as created by God, and that women, like men, should establish churches, build schools, and engage in charitable work. The manifesto reflected not only religious activities but also a call for women’s equality.
The manifesto stated:
“When God created the world, He created both men and women, granting them equality. Therefore, He gave wisdom and blessings equally to both. Mary Magdalene was renowned as a servant during the time of the Savior, and Queen Victoria was entrusted with power as a great modern leader. This proves that women are not inherently subordinate to men. How pitiable it is that our Korean women, who make up half of our 20 million sacred compatriots, are confined to small, secluded spaces, indulging only in trivial emotions and resigning themselves as mere appendages of society. Truly, it is a sorrowful situation.
Now, with changing tides breaking open the doors of the past, opportunities are becoming available to women. If men establish churches, women also establish churches; if men build schools, women also build schools…
We Korean women living in America, despite our modest livelihoods, have spent a precious decade without contributing much, which is indeed a shame…
Therefore, we in Manteca hereby establish the Women’s Missionary Society and call upon our Korean sisters to unite with shared devotion. We hope that all sisters and compatriots will join us before God to become faithful servants.”
This manifesto was groundbreaking, considering the deeply rooted Confucian mindset and societal conventions of the Korean community at the time. When the manifesto was published in newspapers and letters were distributed to Korean households, the Korean Women’s Association of Sacramento was the first to express full support. Given the difficulties in fostering unity within the Korean community at the time, the alignment of purpose was highly praised as a move toward communal happiness. The ease with which the general women’s associations responded to this religious initiative can be attributed to the strong church affiliations of most Korean immigrants and their support for women’s equal participation in societal activities.
In 1936, during the 17th anniversary of the Korean Women’s Patriotic Corps, the first president, Yang Je-hyun, also the president of the Sacramento Korean Women’s Association, symbolized the solidarity within the women’s movement. By April 15, 1917, the Women’s Missionary Society recruited members and held a postal election on May 24, electing Yang Je-hyun as president, Kim Ja-hye as vice president, Kang Yu-shin as secretary, Han Shin-ae as treasurer, and Kim Hyun-do as manager. By September of that year, 17 women living near Stockton made significant contributions to the organization, and support grew from various regions.
In 1919, as women’s organizations across the U.S. began to consolidate, the Women’s Missionary Society temporarily suspended activities. It resumed operations in 1927, focusing on San Francisco and Oakland. To raise funds, the society diversified income sources, such as preparing food for events like receptions and weddings. By 1931, their financial report showed a surplus of $118. That year, in response to the suffering of compatriots affected by the Manchurian Incident, members visited laundries and homes in the city to collect clothing, which was sent to Manchuria to aid struggling compatriots. The society also continued to provide support for impoverished Koreans in their homeland.
The Korean Women’s Patriotic Corps, centered in California, was established on August 5, 1919, in Dinuba. It remained active until Korea’s liberation, playing a vital role in the independence movement
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